The term technology refers not to simply one type of technology but to a wide range of electronic materials and methods for learning. It can apply to the use of computers in education, but it also can apply to video production and distance learning classes. Each type of technology has different uses and fulfills different learning goals. Assessing the effect of technology on student achievement is a complex process. Changes in the classroom correlate with changes in other educational factors as well.

Different Types of Technology: In addressing the first factor, educators become aware that many different types of technology can be used to support and enhance learning. Various technologies deliver different kinds of content and serve different purposes in the classroom. For example, word processing and e-mail promote communication skills; database and spreadsheet programs promote organisational skills; modeling software promotes the understanding of science and math concepts. It is important to consider how these electronic technologies differ and what characteristics make them important as vehicles for education (Becker, 1994). Technologies available in classrooms today range from simple tool-based applications (such as word processors) to online repositories of scientific data and primary historical documents, to closed-circuit television channels and two-way distance learning classrooms. Each one is likely to play a different role in students’ learning. Rather than trying to describe the impact of all technologies, as if they were the same, researchers need to think about what kind of technologies are being used in the classroom and for what purposes.

Some researchers define technology use on the basis of its application--how it is used for learning. Means (1994), for example, describes four major functions of technology used to support learning:

Similarly, Bruce and Levin (1997) look at ways in which the tools, techniques, and applications of technology can support integrated, inquiry-based learning to "engage children in exploring, thinking, reading, writing, researching, inventing, problem-solving, and experiencing the world." They developed the idea of technology as media with four different focuses: media for inquiry (such as data modeling, spreadsheets, access to online databases, access to online observatories and microscopes, and hypertext), media for communication (such as word processing, e-mail, synchronous conferencing, graphics software, simulations, and tutorials), media for construction (such as robotics, computer-aided design, and control systems), and media for expression (such as interactive video, animation software, and music composition). Whichever way a school decides to define technology use, educators need to determine if the specific purpose of the technology addresses the school's goals for student learning. Only then can plans be made for purchasing equipment and materials, and for assessing how well the technology helps achieve the goals.

Assessment of Student Achievement: The second consideration is that assessing the effect of technology on student achievement is a complex issue. Most research on technology and student achievement has used traditional standardised assessments to measure changes in student performance. This research often has focused on students' knowledge of isolated facts but has paid little attention to how well students think. Much has been learned in the last 15 years about new and meaningful ways to measure what students know and how well they know it. To measure the effect of specific technologies on student achievement, assessment methods and instruments should be appropriate to the learning outcomes promoted by those technologies (Glennan & Melmed, 1996; Conte, 1997). Newer standardised tests may be appropriate if they fit in with the school's learning goals and are designed to measure the effects of technology use. In many cases, however, alternative assessment may be more suitable for meaningful research about the relationship between technology and student achievement.

Complex Nature of Change: The third factor influencing the impact of technology on student achievement is that changes in classroom technologies correlate to changes in other educational factors as well. Originally the determination of student achievement was based on traditional methods of social scientific investigation: It asked whether there was a specific, causal relationship between one thing, technology, and another, student achievement. Because schools are complex social environments, however, it is impossible to change just one thing at a time (Glennan & Melmed, 1996; Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Newman, 1990). If a new technology is introduced into a classroom, other things also change. For example, teachers’ perceptions of their students' capabilities can shift dramatically when technology is integrated into the classroom (Honey, Chang, Light, Moeller, in press); also, teachers frequently find themselves acting more as coaches and less as lecturers (Henriquez & Riconscente, 1998). Another example is that use of technology tends to foster collaboration among students, which in turn may have a positive effect on student achievement (Tinzmann, 1998). Because the technology becomes part of a complex network of changes, its impact cannot be reduced to a simple cause-and-effect model that would provide a definitive answer to how it has improved student achievement.

These three factors suggest that the relationship between technology and student achievement is a good deal more complicated now than when computers first appeared in the classroom. Technology is changing rapidly and offers a huge array of opportunities and resources; student achievement and improvements in thinking skills are difficult to measure; and schools integrating technology are changing in a multitude of ways all at once. Nevertheless, specific studies on technology and student learning demonstrate that it is possible to do research that takes into account this range of factors and to demonstrate that use of technology, integrated into the classroom context, can have a positive impact on student achievement.

The researchers' findings have implications for every school using or planning to use technology. The research on successfully developing, evaluating, studying, and implementing a wide range of technology-based educational programs suggests that the value of technology for students will not be realised unless attention is paid to several important considerations that support the effective use of technology (Chang, Henriquez, Honey, Light, Moeller, & Ross, 1998; Cradler, 1997; Frederiksen & White, 1997; Hawkins, Panush, & Spielvogel, 1996; Honey, McMillan, Tsikalas, & Light, 1996; National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 1996; Pea & Gomez, 1992). These considerations are: specific educational goals and a vision of learning through technology, ongoing professional development, structural changes in the school day, a robust technical infrastructure and technical support, and ongoing evaluation.

Educational Goals and a Vision of Learning Through Technology: Before technology is purchased or teachers participate in their first professional development session, the educational goals for students should be determined. What do students need to learn, and how can technology promote those learning goals? To answer these questions, the school can convene a technology planning team comprising administrators, teachers, other instructional staff, technology coordinators, students, parents, and representatives of the community. This team first develops a clear set of goals, expectations, and criteria for student learning based on national and state standards, the student population, and community concerns. Next, it determines the types of technology that will best support efforts to meet those goals. The viewpoints of parents and community members are helpful in presenting a broader perspective of skills that students need to succeed after school. In fact, community wide involvement in determining the school's technology goals benefits the entire educational process (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997).

Cuban (cited in Trotter, 1998) states, "The obligation is for educators, practitioners, and educational policymakers to think about what they are after. Only with clear goals can educators be intelligent about how much they want to spend for what purpose and under what conditions." If there is a clear understanding of the purpose of and type of technology used, evaluating the impact is easier and more valuable.

According to Hawkins, Panush, and Spielvogel (1996), school districts that successfully integrate technology show a clear and meaningful connection between technology and larger educational goals.

Next, the planning team develops a vision of how technology can improve teaching and learning. Team members come to consensus in answering the question How Will You Use Technology to Support Your Vision of Learning? Essential to this vision is an emphasis on meaningful, engaged learning with technology, in which students are actively involved in the learning process. Students take ownership of their learning, acting as explorers and producers; teachers function as facilitators and guides. Used effectively, technology can encourage collaborative learning, development of critical thinking skills, and problem solving (Means, Blando, Olson, Middleton, Morocco, Remz, & Zorfass, 1993; Cradler, 1994, 1996; Singh & Means, 1994). It can help learners explore the world beyond the classroom by providing access to vast resources and information, promoting scientific inquiry and discovery, and allowing students to communicate with experts. Technology used for authentic tasks can provide students with opportunities to interact with a wealth of resources, materials, and data sets, and to perform challenging tasks similar to those in careers and out-of-school activities.

The school's vision of learning through technology also emphasizes the importance of all students having equitable access and use of technology. Too often, students who most would benefit from effective technology use--females, special-needs students, minority students, disadvantaged students, students at risk of educational failure, rural and inner-city students--are consigned to less frequent access, older equipment, and simple software applications (Gaines, Johnson, & King, 1996). All students need opportunities to use technology in meaningful, authentic tasks that develop higher-order thinking skills.

Continued Next Page